Subnational survey data reveal persistent gaps in living standards across 75 low and middle-income countries

R Hoffmann, O Patange, C Zimm, S Pachauri, C Belmin, S Pelz, E Brutschin, JS Kikstra, M Kuhn, J Min, R Muttarak, K Riahi, T Schinko, K Mintz-Woo · Nature Communications · 2025

Subnational survey data expose persistent decent-living gaps across 75 countries

Subnational survey data reveal persistent gaps in living standards across 75 low and middle-income countries — key figure — Share of population meeting decent-living-standard dimensions across 75 countries (Hoffmann et al., Nat. Commun. 2025, Fig. 1)

We use subnational Demographic and Health Survey data from 75 low and middle-income countries (1990-2021) to map the distribution and trends of ten 'decent living standards' (DLS), the universal material preconditions for well-being. We estimate that 94.9% of households in our dataset lack the material prerequisites for at least one of the ten standards, and 63.6% fall short on a third of them.

We find that stark inequalities persist both within and between countries, with regions in sub-Saharan Africa experiencing the most severe deprivations. Despite some improvements, progress remains limited in critical areas such as health care, sanitation, housing, and education. Within countries, rural, agrarian households with low educational attainment are particularly disadvantaged.

These granular subnational findings are associated with sharper targeting of policy efforts. We argue they can help direct resources towards the populations most in need, where national averages mask within-country gaps.

paper

Cite

@article{hoffmann_subnational_2025,
	title = {Subnational survey data reveal persistent gaps in living standards across 75 low and middle-income countries},
	volume = {16},
	copyright = {All rights reserved},
	issn = {2041-1723},
	url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-60195-5},
	doi = {10.1038/s41467-025-60195-5},
	language = {en},
	number = {1},
	urldate = {2026-01-13},
	journal = {Nature Communications},
	author = {Hoffmann, Roman and Patange, Omkar and Zimm, Caroline and Pachauri, Shonali and Belmin, Camille and Pelz, Setu and Brutschin, Elina and Kikstra, Jarmo S. and Kuhn, Michael and Min, Jihoon and Muttarak, Raya and Riahi, Keywan and Schinko, Thomas and Mintz-Woo, Kian},
	month = jun,
	year = {2025},
	pages = {4986},
}